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The Linux Command Line
Fifth Internet Edition
William Shotts
A LinuxCommand.org Book
Copyright ©2008-2019, William E. Shotts, Jr.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No De-
rivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit the link
above or send a letter to Creative Commons, PO Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042.
A version of this book is also available in printed form, published by No Starch Press.
Copies may be purchased wherever fine books are sold. No Starch Press also offers elec-
tronic formats for popular e-readers. They can be reached at:
https://www.nostarch.com.
Linux
®
is the registered trademark of Linus Torvalds. All other trademarks belong to
their respective owners.
This book is part of the LinuxCommand.org project, a site for Linux education and advo-
cacy devoted to helping users of legacy operating systems migrate into the future. You
may contact the LinuxCommand.org project at
http://linuxcommand.org.
Release History
Version
19.01A
19.01
17.10
16.07
13.07
09.12
Date
January 28, 2019
January 17, 2019
October 19, 2017
July 28, 2016
July 6, 2013
December 14, 2009
Description
Fifth Internet Edition (Corrected TOC)
Fifth Internet Edition.
Fourth Internet Edition.
Third Internet Edition.
Second Internet Edition.
First Internet Edition.
Table of Contents
Introduction....................................................................................................xvi
Why Use the Command Line?......................................................................................xvi
What This Book Is About..............................................................................................xvii
Who Should Read This Book.......................................................................................xvii
What's in This Book.....................................................................................................xviii
How To Read This Book................................................................................................xix
Prerequisites............................................................................................................xix
Why I Don't Call It “GNU/Linux”...........................................................................xix
What's New in the Fifth Internet Edition.........................................................................xx
Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................xx
First Internet Edition..................................................................................................xx
Second Internet Edition............................................................................................xxi
Third Internet Edition................................................................................................xxi
Fourth Internet Edition..............................................................................................xxi
Fifth Internet Edition.................................................................................................xxi
Your Feedback Is Needed!............................................................................................xxi
Further Reading............................................................................................................xxi
Colophon......................................................................................................................xxii
Part 1 – Learning the Shell...............................................................1
1 – What Is the Shell?......................................................................................2
Terminal Emulators..........................................................................................................2
Making Your First Keystrokes..........................................................................................2
Command History.......................................................................................................3
Cursor Movement.......................................................................................................3
A Few Words About Mice and Focus.....................................................................3
Try Some Simple Commands..........................................................................................4
Ending a Terminal Session..............................................................................................5
The Console Behind the Curtain...........................................................................5
Summing Up....................................................................................................................5
Further Reading...............................................................................................................6
2 – Navigation...................................................................................................7
Understanding the File System Tree...............................................................................7
The Current Working Directory........................................................................................7
Listing the Contents of a Directory..................................................................................8
i
Changing the Current Working Directory........................................................................9
Absolute Pathnames..................................................................................................9
Relative Pathnames...................................................................................................9
Some Helpful Shortcuts............................................................................................11
Important Facts About Filenames........................................................................11
Summing Up..................................................................................................................12
3 – Exploring the System..............................................................................13
Having More Fun with ls................................................................................................13
Options and Arguments............................................................................................14
A Longer Look at Long Format.................................................................................16
Determining a File's Type with file.................................................................................17
Viewing File Contents with less.....................................................................................17
What Is “Text”?.....................................................................................................17
Less Is More........................................................................................................19
Taking a Guided Tour.....................................................................................................19
Symbolic Links...............................................................................................................23
Hard Links.....................................................................................................................24
Summing Up..................................................................................................................24
Further Reading.............................................................................................................24
4 – Manipulating Files and Directories........................................................25
Wildcards.......................................................................................................................25
Character Ranges................................................................................................27
Wildcards Work in the GUI Too............................................................................27
mkdir – Create Directories.............................................................................................28
cp – Copy Files and Directories....................................................................................28
Useful Options and Examples..................................................................................29
mv – Move and Rename Files.......................................................................................30
Useful Options and Examples..................................................................................30
rm – Remove Files and Directories...............................................................................31
Useful Options and Examples..................................................................................32
Be Careful with rm!..............................................................................................33
ln – Create Links............................................................................................................33
Hard Links................................................................................................................33
Symbolic Links..........................................................................................................34
Let's Build a Playground................................................................................................34
Creating Directories..................................................................................................34
Copying Files............................................................................................................35
Moving and Renaming Files.....................................................................................36
Creating Hard Links..................................................................................................37
Creating Symbolic Links...........................................................................................38
Removing Files and Directories...............................................................................39
Creating Symlinks With The GUI.........................................................................41
Summing Up..................................................................................................................41
Further Reading.............................................................................................................41
5 – Working with Commands........................................................................42
What Exactly Are Commands?......................................................................................42
Identifying Commands...................................................................................................43
ii
type – Display a Command's Type...........................................................................43
which – Display an Executable's Location...............................................................43
Getting a Command's Documentation..........................................................................44
help – Get Help for Shell Builtins..............................................................................44
--help – Display Usage Information..........................................................................45
man – Display a Program's Manual Page................................................................46
apropos – Display Appropriate Commands..............................................................47
whatis – Display One-line Manual Page Descriptions..............................................48
The Most Brutal Man Page Of Them All..............................................................48
info – Display a Program's Info Entry.......................................................................48
README and Other Program Documentation Files................................................50
Creating Our Own Commands with alias......................................................................50
Summing Up..................................................................................................................52
Further Reading.............................................................................................................52
6 – Redirection................................................................................................54
Standard Input, Output, and Error.................................................................................54
Redirecting Standard Output.........................................................................................55
Redirecting Standard Error............................................................................................57
Redirecting Standard Output and Standard Error to One File.................................57
Disposing of Unwanted Output.................................................................................58
/dev/null In Unix Culture......................................................................................58
Redirecting Standard Input............................................................................................58
cat – Concatenate Files............................................................................................59
Pipelines........................................................................................................................61
The Difference Between > and |..........................................................................61
Filters........................................................................................................................62
uniq - Report or Omit Repeated Lines......................................................................62
wc – Print Line, Word, and Byte Counts...................................................................63
grep – Print Lines Matching a Pattern......................................................................63
head / tail – Print First / Last Part of Files................................................................64
tee – Read from Stdin and Output to Stdout and Files............................................65
Summing Up..................................................................................................................66
Linux Is About Imagination..................................................................................66
7 – Seeing the World as the Shell Sees It....................................................68
Expansion......................................................................................................................68
Pathname Expansion...............................................................................................69
Pathname Expansion of Hidden Files.................................................................70
Tilde Expansion........................................................................................................70
Arithmetic Expansion................................................................................................71
Brace Expansion......................................................................................................72
Parameter Expansion...............................................................................................73
Command Substitution.............................................................................................74
Quoting..........................................................................................................................75
Double Quotes..........................................................................................................76
Single Quotes...........................................................................................................78
Escaping Characters................................................................................................78
Backslash Escape Sequences............................................................................79
Summing Up..................................................................................................................79
iii

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