Statistics in a Nutshell. A Desktop Quick Reference. 2nd Edition - Sarah Boslaugh.pdf

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STATISTICS
IN A NUTSHELL
Second Edition
Sarah Boslaugh
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Statistics in a Nutshell, Second Edition
by Sarah Boslaugh
Copyright © 2013 Sarah Boslaugh. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472.
O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Online
editions are also available for most titles (http://my.safaribooksonline.com). For more infor-
mation, contact our corporate/institutional sales department: 800-998-9938 or
corporate@oreilly.com.
Editor:
Mary Treseler
Production Editor:
Kristen Borg
Copyeditor:
nSight, Inc.
Proofreader:
Katie DePasquale
July 2008:
November 2012:
First Edition.
Second Edition.
Indexer:
Potomac Indexing, LLC
Cover Designer:
Randy Comer
Interior Designer:
David Futato
Illustrator:
Rebecca Demarest
Revision History for the Second Edition:
2012-10-31
First release
See
http://oreilly.com/catalog/errata.csp?isbn=9781449316822
for release details.
Nutshell Handbook, the Nutshell Handbook logo, and the O’Reilly logo are registered trade-
marks of O’Reilly Media, Inc.
Statistics in a Nutshell,
the image of a thornback crab, and related
trade dress are trademarks of O’Reilly Media, Inc.
Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are
claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and O’Reilly Media,
Inc., was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in caps or initial caps.
While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and
author assume no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use
of the information contained herein.
ISBN: 978-1-449-31682-2
[LSI]
1351705222
Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
1. Basic Concepts of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Measurement
Levels of Measurement
True and Error Scores
Reliability and Validity
Measurement Bias
Exercises
2
2
8
10
14
17
2. Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
About Formulas
Basic Definitions
Defining Probability
Bayes’ Theorem
Enough Exposition, Let’s Do Some Statistics!
Exercises
22
23
30
34
36
38
3. Inferential Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Probability Distributions
Independent and Dependent Variables
Populations and Samples
The Central Limit Theorem
Hypothesis Testing
Confidence Intervals
p-values
The Z-Statistic
Data Transformations
46
53
54
59
64
67
68
70
72
iii

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