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IFPRI Discussion Paper 01086
May 2011
The Economics of Desertification,
Land Degradation, and Drought
Toward an Integrated Global Assessment
Ephraim Nkonya
Nicolas Gerber
Philipp Baumgartner
Joachim von Braun
Alex De Pinto
Valerie Graw
Edward Kato
Julia Kloos
Teresa Walter
Environment Production and Technology Division
INTERNATIONAL FOOD POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE
The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) was established in 1975. IFPRI is one of 15
agricultural research centers that receive principal funding from governments, private foundations, and
international and regional organizations, most of which are members of the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).
PARTNERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
IFPRI gratefully acknowledges the generous unrestricted funding from Australia, Canada, China,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, the
Philippines, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the World
Bank.
AUTHORS
Ephraim Nkonya, International Food Policy Research Institute
Senior Research Fellow, Environment and Production Technology Division
Nicolas Gerber, Center for Development Research (ZEF)
University of Bonn
Philipp Baumgartner, Center for Development Research (ZEF)
University of Bonn
Joachim von Braun, Center for Development Research (ZEF)
University of Bonn
Alex De Pinto, International Food Policy Research Institute
Research Fellow, Environment and Production Technology Division
Valerie Graw, Center for Development Research (ZEF)
University of Bonn
Edward Kato, International Food Policy Research Institute
Research Analyst, Environment and Production Technology Division
Julia Kloos, Center for Development Research (ZEF)
University of Bonn
Teresa Walter, University of Hohenheim
Department of Land Use Economics in the Tropics and Subtropics
Formerly with the Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn)
Notices
1
IFPRI Discussion Papers contain preliminary material and research results. They have been peer reviewed, but have not been
subject to a formal external review via IFPRI’s Publications Review Committee. They are circulated in order to stimulate discussion
and critical comment; any opinions expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of
IFPRI.
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on the map(s) herein do not imply official endorsement or
acceptance by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) or its partners and contributors.
2.
Copyright 2011 International Food Policy Research Institute. All rights reserved. Sections of this material may be reproduced for
personal and not-for-profit use without the express written permission of but with acknowledgment to IFPRI. To reproduce the
material contained herein for profit or commercial use requires express written permission. To obtain permission, contact the
Communications Division at ifpri-copyright@cgiar.org.
Contents
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations and Acronyms
1. Introduction
2. Assessment of Desertification, Land Degradation, and Drought
3. Economics of Desertification, Land Degradation, and Drought
4. Actors, Incentives, and Institutions Governing Land Management
5. Actions for Improvements
6. Case Studies
7. Partnership Concept
8. Conclusions
Appendix A: Supplementary Tables
Appendix B: Supplementary Figures
References
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List of Tables
2.1—GLASOD (1991) extent of human-induced soil degradation (in million hectares)
2.2—Nitrogen application rates in selected eastern and southern African countries
2.3—Global land degradation assessment studies
2.4—Trends in the spatial extent of drought for various baseline values
2.5—Estimated effect of climate change on drought frequency in 2030
2.6—Extent and severity of global soil nutrient depletion, 1990–1999 (in million hectares)
2.7—Selected variables used to analyze relationships with NDVI
2.8—Correlation of NDVI with selected biophysical and socio-economic factors
2.9—OLS regression of mean NDVI on selected biophysical and socio-economic variables
3.1—Main valuation techniques
3.2—Drought loss, 1900–2004
3.3—Economic valuation techniques for the estimation of various types of costs
4.1—List of actors affecting land use decisions
5.1—Type of land degradation and their solutions
5.2—Status, trend, and drivers of pastoral livestock population
6.1—Land resources and severity of land degradation
6.2—Effects of increased salinity on yields and profit for wheat and cotton, Uzbekistan
6.3—Soil loss, yields, and profit for land in different slope classes, Uzbekistan
6.4—Adoption rates of land management practices in Kenya and Niger
6.5—Trend of total factor productivity growth of major crops, India
6.6—Economic loss due to overgrazing, Kenya
6.7—Value of tropical forest ecosystem goods and services
7.1—Partnerships and the role and strengths of partners in conducting global E-DLDD
7.2—Essential climate variable monitoring programs of the terrestrial ecosystem services (part of
SB1 and SB2)
7.3—Example of E-DLDD research partnership team (SB1)
A.1—Land degradation assessments on the national level
A.2—Land degradation assessment on the local and subnational levels
A.3—Review of studies estimating off-site costs of land degradation (in chronological order)
A.4—Review of studies estimating the net present value (NPV) of returns to different
conservation measures (in chronological order)
A.5—Costs of land degradation (mainly soil erosion)
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List of Figures
1.1—Conceptual framework for assessing the costs of action versus the costs of inaction
regarding DLDD (with net present value outcomes)
1.2—Costs and benefits—Concepts
1.3—Prevention, mitigation, and rehabilitation costs over time
1.4—Illustration of the vicious circle connecting poverty, discount rates, and land degradation
2.1—GLASOD (1991) global assessment of the status of human-induced soil degradation
2.2—Desertification vulnerability
2.3—Areas vulnerable to human-induced desertification
2.4—Loss of annual NPP, GLADA, 1981–2003
2.5—Degraded area as a percentage of total global degraded land area across agroclimatic zones,
GLADA, 1981–2003
2.6—Areas most affected by land degradation, GLADA, 1981–2003
2.7—Annual loss of NPP in eastern and southern Africa, 1981–2003
2.8—Yield trend of major cereals in southern Africa, 1981–2009
2.9—Yield trend of major cereals in eastern Africa, 1981–2009
2.10—Cereal yield trend in Cameroon, 1981–2009
2.11—Long-term degradation of green biomass
2.12—Areas affected by human-induced land degradation measured by a declining NDVI
(Change in NDVI from 1982–2003 with a three-year base- and endline)
2.13—The six axes of GLADIS: Four biophysical axes (dark gray) and two socioeconomic axes
(light gray)
2.14—Ecosystem Service Status Index, GLADIS
2.15—Land Degradation Index (LDI), GLADIS
2.16—Biophysical Degradation Index (BDI), GLADIS
2.17—Land Degradation Impact Index (LDII), GLADIS
2.18—Methods for the assessment of land degradation
2.19—Trend of per capita arable land across regions
2.20—Relationship between change in NDVI and population density
2.21—Relationship between GDP and NDVI
2.22—Relationship between government effectiveness and NDVI
2.23—Relationship between fertilizer application and NDVI
2.24—Impact of soil erosion on wheat yield
2.25—Impact of soil erosion on maize yield
2.26—Impact of soil erosion on millet yield
2.27—Annual loss of reservoir storage capacity due to sedimentation
3.1—Total wealth and social welfare
3.2—Marginal private and social costs of land degradation
3.3—Example of a marginal abatement cost curve
3.4—Cost of action and cost of delayed action
3.5—Total economic value framework
3.6—Ecosystem services framework
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