Writing In English.pdf

(1888 KB) Pobierz
Leonardo da Vinci programme
European Commission
Writing in English
A Practical Handbook for Scientific and Technical
Writers
A Pilot Project
Project Partners
Zuzana Svobodova,
Technical University Brno, Czech Republic
Heidrun Katzorke
and
Ursula Jaekel,
Technische Universität, Chemnitz, Germany
Stefania Dugovicova
and
Mike Scoggin,
Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
Peter Treacher,
ELT Centre, University of Essex, England
Writing in English
A Practical Handbook for Scientific and Technical Writers
CONTENTS
Page No.
Foreword
1
1.1
1.2
Types of Writing
Scientific Articles
Research Papers
1
2
3
4
4.1
Language functions
Agreeing and Disagreeing
35
36
Page No.
4.2 Classifying
4.3
4.4
1.3 Proposals
Comparing and Contrasting 37
Defining
Emphasising
Generalising
Paraphrasing
Quoting
39
41
43
45
47
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Composition
Titles
Planning your Writing
Paragraph Writing
Introductions
Writing the Main Body
Conclusions
Sections of a Research
Paper
Describing Tables and
Graphs
5
6
7
9
12
14
17
18
19
21
21
24
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
5
5.1
Grammar
Adverbs
51
53
56
56
58
62
65
5.2 Articles
5.3
5.4
Numbers
Passive Voice
2.9 Referencing
2.10 Plagiarism
2.11 Abstracts
2.12 Summary Writing
3
3.1
Style
Objectivity
5.5 Punctuation
5.6
5.7
Verb Tenses
Word Order
6
27
28
29
29
31
6.1
Words
Abbreviations
67
68
70
3.2 Clarity
3.3
3.4
Formality
Hedging
6.2 Prefixes
6.3 Suffixes
3.5 Signposting
Foreword
No science stands alone. If research done, findings found, conclusions drawn are
not presented to the world then it is arguable whether they are of any real use at
all. The reason for the research paper is to present the findings to the world, to
share the information learned for others to do with it what they will. Why the
research was originally conducted is of interest, but the researcher’s intentions,
goals and conclusions are not the end.
For example, a zoologist’s published observations of the chemical means of trail
marking by ants may be read by a biochemist, who in turn researches the make-up
of the chemical. These findings are then read by a chemist who synthesises the
chemical and through that research finds a means of bonding that is both durable,
but removable. Meanwhile a scientist in robotics reads the zoologist’s work and
other possibilities arise. This roboticist creates a robot that can detect and respond
to chemicals applied like paint to the floor, solving the problem of how to guide
and instruct robots on their mail-delivery rounds through an often-changing maze
in an assembly plant. No research stands alone. No researcher can foresee all of
the consequences and ramifications of their work. All science is interdisciplinary.
This is why research results and findings are published.
Since no one knows what impact the research might have, and on whom, the work
must be published in a way that is easily accessible not only for fellow researchers
in the particular field, but to everyone. The work must be presented in an ordered,
conventionally agreed upon way. A research, technical or scientific paper is not
the place for creative or artistic writing, but for the organised, logical, deliberate
dissemination of knowledge. The researcher did the research; the reader should
not have to.
This handbook has been designed to be a reference book and guide for researchers
who have to write up their scientific work in English and who may need help to
compose and write more clearly and accurately in the language. At present it is
only a pilot version and the final edition will be ready during 2001. Your
comments on the usefulness of this draft will be invaluable to the compilers, who
are:
Zuzana Svobodova, Technical University Brno, Czech Republic
Heidrun Katzorke and Ursula Jaekel, Technische Universität, Chemnitz, Germany
Stefania Dugovicova and Mike Scoggin, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
Peter Treacher, ELT Centre, University of Essex, England
This project is sponsored and funded by
the European Commission Leonardo da Vinci programme
©
2000 Writing in English Project Group
Types of writing
Chapter 1
TYPES OF WRITING
In this chapter we outline some of the main differences between certain important kinds of
scientific and technical writing. These are
scientific articles
research papers
proposals
1.1
Scientific Articles
Scientific and technical articles and essays are mainly published in journals, magazines and
newspapers. They are normally intended to reach a wider audience than research papers.
Thinking about your audience
How scientific articles are written depends on who the readers are likely to be. A more
scholarly, academic or discipline-specific journal will allow specialised vocabulary, while a
piece in a more popular magazine, for example, will present and explain the data in an
accessible manner for a wider audience. The writer must know what kind of people he or she
is writing for.
The structure of a scientific article
Articles and essays need to be a seamless whole: paragraph flowing into paragraph, ideas
presented smoothly in logical order. Structurally they can be broken down into these three
parts:
The introduction
The main body
The conclusion
Each of these is covered in a section in Chapter 2 on
Composition.
Articles and essays need to be well thought out and ordered. How the writer introduces the
piece, builds on the introduction through the body, and concludes will largely determine how
the information is accepted. Step by step, the writer must present main ideas, supporting
evidence, analyses and conclusions in a logical and organised manner. The writing must not
wander, but keep to its task of presenting the writer’s information in the clearest possible
way.
Style Manuals
Every discipline has its own style standard. These
Style Manuals
are published and readily
available for each field, science and discipline. Writers are responsible for knowing and
following the standard of their own particular discipline.
1
Types of writing
1.2
Research Papers
Research papers are generally written for scientists working in the same field and therefore
have a more limited, and more specialised, readership than articles. Research papers can
appear in specialist journals or be presented at conferences.
The structure of a research paper
A research paper has a more closely defined structure than an article or essay. There are
normally 8 sections in a research paper or scientific report, and these tend to follow each
other in a fixed sequence. Obviously these may vary, depending on the nature of the research
done. Each element is further described and explained in Chapter 2
Composition.
Title
It must precisely describe the report’s contents
Abstract
A brief overview of the report
Introduction
Includes the purpose of the research
States the hypothesis
Gives any necessary background information
Provides a review of pertinent literature
Methods and materials
Provides a description of material, equipment and methods used in the research
Results
States the results of the research. Visual materials are included here.
Discussion
Evaluation and interpretation
Was the hypothesis supported? If so, how? If not, why not? Relevant results
are cited in support.
Conclusion
Conclusions to be drawn from the results
Conclusions about the hypothesis
Implications of the research and results
Additional research proposed
References cited
A list of the references cited
Include references to any works cited in the review of literature in the introduction.
Use the documentation style required by your specific field. (See Sections 2.9 on
Referencing
and 4.8 on
Quoting)
2

Plik z chomika:

Inne pliki z tego folderu:

Inne foldery tego chomika:

Zgłoś jeśli naruszono regulamin